Sorimachi Speaks

'THE SHAPE OF JAPAN IN THE 21st CENTURY' SERIES, No. 35

Employability for Business and Industry - Developing Career Studies

	The jobless recovery: the dire situation for the young unemployed
	Japan's economy is recovering in step with the US economic recovery. However in both the US and Japan business profits are recovering due to restructuring, without employment rising. *1 The total jobless rate for fiscal 2003 announced by the Ministry of Public Management, Home Affairs, Posts and Telecommunications on 30 January 2004 was 5.3%, an improvement of 0.1 points on the worst ever rate of fiscal 2002, however youth unemployment is worse than ever before. Those aged 15~34 years make up as many as 1,360,000 persons, nearly half of the total number of jobless. The jobless rate amongst those aged 15~24 years is 8.1% and their numbers come to as many as 530,000 persons.
	The capabilities businesses require from young people
	Generally speaking as younger people receive lower wages one would expect them to be the first employed, however the reality is different. This is because young people have no immediate capabilities. It is instructive to examine the Survey into Actual Conditions relating to the Employability of Young People released by the Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare on 29 January this year. 2 According to that survey, the seven most important abilities for businesses when recruiting for office and business related jobs are "communication ability", "basic academic ability", "a sense of responsibility", "being positive and extroverted", "having qualifications", "being energetic" and "business etiquette". Further, questions were asked in relation to how proficient businesses felt young people were in regard to 16 areas 3 relating to the abilities businesses gave weight to when hiring. Businesses replying "unsatisfactory" in relation to all these areas outnumbered businesses answering "satisfactory" in relation to the same. This is a further demonstration that today, when the business environment is in great flux, there is an acute gap between education for young people and reality.
	Practical measures to enable young people to satisfy job prerequisites
	These abilities that businesses require young people to have can be called "employability". They are not requirements for individual aptitudes or qualities, they are abilities that can be acquired through training and as such are frankly better called job prerequisites According to the report of an expert advisory committee constituted by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT), *4 teaching these job prerequisites is known, as it is expected that they will be formed in tandem with a child's maturation process, as "career skilling", a process defined as "education to cultivate each young student's perspectives and value in relation to work and their occupation" and "education to support each young student's career development and cultivate the desires, attitudes and abilities necessary for each to build a suitable career". The report views as necessary the furtherance of organized and systematic "career skilling" appropriate for students' level of development through the entirety of school educational activities. The measures raised as in order to implement this education are (1) the development of learning programs centering on the cultivation of abilities and attitudes appropriate to each stage of development, (2) giving the appropriate status to educational courses and devising and improving guidance at each school, (3) the use of experiential activities and similar programs (including work experience and internships) (4) the acquisition of an understanding of the reality of our social and economic structure and knowledge about the rights and obligations of workers, (5) the creation of diverse relationships with a wide variety of other people. Naturally, this is meant to be something to be implemented from elementary school and illustrates the great extent to which the MEXT position has changed. It is worrisome to consider how vocational education will be able to enter into the educational context, where until now there was a tendency for the very words 'vocational education' to be taboo. There may be resistance. Further, the "Furthering the Comprehensive Career Skilling Plan" report released on 10 June 2003 by the Council on Strategies for Achieving Youth Independence states that it "aims to heighten the occupational awareness of the young people to whom Japan's future is entrusted" through the deployment of comprehensive support policies at a broad range of young people, from students to freelancing casual workers. The policy aimed specifically at university students is called "Targeted Career Planning" and has been decreed as "the cultivation of human resources possessing the high-level specialist abilities that will enable them to lead society in response to the increased sophistication and complexity of our society and economy". Here too careers are the emphasis. Further, Article 12 (2) of the Law on Special Zones for Structural Reform states that corporations able to set up schools "will carry out, at schools set up in the Special Zones for Structural Reform, education and research that is in response to the need for implementing education that makes use of special local characteristics, the need for the cultivation of human resources to shoulder local industry and other special circumstances." This is the essence of career skilling.
	What kind of learning is entailed in 'career studies' in today's schools?
	MEXT is promoting "career skilling" and is also requiring "career studies" of universities. However the questions of what career studies should target and what the relationship between career studies and other field of learning should be are unexplored. The key is in specialist graduate schools and tertiary colleges. The former is a system that draws on the example of American success (see the March 2004 Special Edition of this publication), and the latter cannot be underestimated, viewed from the fact that these colleges boast an overwhelming job placement rate.
	My theory on career skilling
	Career studies should be commenced as a measure able to respond to today's urgent topics in business and industry circles in Japan. Accordingly career studies is research into "the nature of the qualities, abilities and technical skills possessed by the kind of human resources who will become the pillars of today's business, industry and specialist practitioner circles, supporting, leading and furthering the same." Viewed from the perspective of the relevant personnel, they can be described as "professionals who are immediately effective and who have the ability to handle business tasks, high-level specialist abilities, high productivity and integrity of character". Precisely the human resources that business requires will be cultivated in line with the MEXT policy mentioned above. Career studies have still barely got underway, both in Japan and overseas. As is always the case with new fields of learning, its shape will be determined by its relationship to previously existing fields of learning. I would like to survey present directions in this regard. Human resources who have mastered career studies will be people who (1) understand the legal system that regulates that field (in other words, they will be familiar with compliance issues and will observe the legalities in their work), (2) can implement the accomplishment of goals in business and in the area of work for which they are responsible (in other words, have acquired bookkeeping, management costing and technical skills in budget implementation), (3) are people able to lead work comprised of cooperative and specialized tasks who are proficient at communication (have a professional attitude including in terms of their sense of responsibility, energy and initiative).5 (1) and (2) above can be learned through education whereas (3) involves attributes which are influenced by character and temperament as they are cultivated through training. As human society is, in whatever field, a gathering of human beings, we need to be people who have a healthy professional ethics and outlook, people who are worthy of respect in terms of character and humanity, who have an impeccable integrity. This makes education in Japan's traditions, culture, religions, history and ethics all the more necessary. These aspects of character training appear at first glance to be unrelated to career skilling. However, on a deeper level career, skilling merges in with character. What is more, the 21st century is an era when intellectually creative industries will take a central role. This is all the more reason why the labor of knowledge workers, in other words their labor productivity, is in demand. In the current deflationary times, when Japan is in competition with newly developing countries led by China, our nation's fate rests on our ability to develop our knowledge workers. These are issues that, in short, should be taken into education. In other words, this means the teaching of career development studies. Analysis from a variety of standpoints is needed in order to research and teach these talents, abilities and skills. No doubt pre-existing educational studies will be used as a base and an outline of career studies (scope of research, specific development) will be further developed in relation to the following fields of learning. Analysis from the economics studies perspective on education Analysis from the management studies perspective on education Analysis from the psychological studies perspective on education Analysis from the family studies / sociological studies perspective on education Analysis from the legal studies / political studies perspective on education Anaylsis from an international comparison of education The following is a summary in relation to these fields of learning from the perspective of cultivating job security and employability for young people studying at university. Analysis from the economics studies perspective on education* 6 If education (career development studies) is viewed from an economic perspective, in other words from education economics, the issue arises as to whether education equates to investment or consumption. There are two academic theories, the 'human capital' model, which views education as an investment in a stock of human capital and the 'signaling' model, which views education as consumption. In terms of industry policy and today's employment situation human resources are viewed together with materials, money and information as a means of producing goods and services. In macroeconomic terms, human resources are given status as a means of increasing the overall labor productivity and economic growth of the economy (in the human capital model) and this is no doubt appropriate. However, there are differing schools within the field of economics, including Keynesian economic thought, neo-classicist economic theories and welfare economics. There are, moreover, a number of topics deserving of research, including the public nature of education, compulsory education and the involvement of the state and local governments and financial support for education. Analysis from the management studies perspective on education* 7 Looking at education as career development is useful to ask Japanese businesses what kind of human resources they find desirable. Noted managers reply with the statement "business is people". For businesses that create the intellectual property and which will be the core industries of the 21st century, people are capital goods and at the same time, leaders and managers. We cannot take Marx's materialistic view of history where the 'basis' unilaterally dictates the 'superstructure'. Further, whilst there are many management academics in this field this does not mean that there has yet been an analysis of the businesses that produce our actual intellectual assets. Analysis from the psychological studies perspective on education* 8 The objects of the study of psychology are the mind, the consciousness, behavior and perceptions and psychology targets the teaching of lecturers and the learning of students. At present a wide range of media are being introduced into the classroom and educational courses are being organized in response to the diversification of occupations and rapid technological advancements. Moreover, the increase in mature-age students and the spread of lifetime learning means that an approach from the perspective of psychological analysis and appraisal is all the more necessary. Analysis from the family studies / sociological studies perspective on education* 9 Today preschool education begins from the time of birth and education at home and by parents is vitally important, whether education is seen as investment or as consumption. Whilst John Dewey has stated that the functions of education are (1) the unification of society, (2) equality and (3) the development of character, if career skilling develops from this point this should produce heightened class differences and inequality and reproduce of ranking by occupation. It is has a connection to the economics of the family and of marriage. Analysis from the legal studies / political science perspective on education* 10 Education is regulated by the Constitution, particularly by Articles 23, 26 and 89 and there is a great deal of subordinate legislation under these provisions. There is a connection here to the study of educational administration. The issue voters are most interested in is future amendments to the Constitution and to the Basic Law on Education. Vocational education, research into career studies and academic freedom are, in the end, all dependent on legislation. It is matter of urgency that those concerned in education take the initiative to offer our opinions to and make demands of the government in step with the Koizumi Cabinet's slogans on structural and regulatory reform. In short, the shape of our nation and of Japanese education will not be realized without the untiring efforts of the Japanese people to lobby the government. Academic freedom is no more than a precondition or preparatory work for the same. Analysis from an international comparison of education* *11 There are a great many reports on and much research into education in foreign countries, particularly in connection to England, Germany, France and the US. Whilst the influence of German education was strong in prewar Japan several developments since then have meant that research into the US education system abounds. These include the use of the American education system in Japan, the fact that our political and economic relationship with the US is even stronger and closer and post-Cold War American unipolarism. Recently education focusing on vocational education has become a focus in these countries in particular and this is significant for the development of education and career studies in Japan.
	Materials 1: Interdisciplinary fields of research and study into career development Center text: Career studies, pedagogy Economics Management Psychology Family and Social Studies Law and Political Science International Comparative Studies By author
	Materials 2: Three Tiered Approach to the Entrepreneurial Spirit Top tier: Legal sphere Laws and regulations on autonomy and enforcement Middle tier: Accounting sphere Management and assets accounting Bottom tier: Character sphere Workplace ethics, the character sphere By author

*1
Ministry of Finance Hojin kigyo tokei chosa [Statistical Survey of Incorporated Businesses] （http://www.mof.go.jp/1c002.htm）
*2
Results of the Ministry of Health, Labour & Welfare Wakanensha no shushoku noryoku ni kansuru jittai chosa [Survey into the Actual Conditions of Youth Employability] released on 29 January 2004. Reply forms were sent by post to over 10,000 companies across Japan last year and 1,472 replies were received. Of these, production businesses numbered 463 and non-production businesses came to 1,009 companies.
*3
The abilities ranked below the top 7 were as follows; "ambition and an inquiring mind", presentation skills", "vocational awareness and work values", "flexibility and adaptability to one's environment", "specializing in specific fields of knowledge", "physical strength", "ability to withstand stress", "ability to perceive problems", "achievements in personal interests and hobbies" and "ability to gather information".
*4
Kyaria kyoiku no suishin ni kansuru sogotekina chosa kenkyu kyoryokusha kaigi hokokusho ~jido seito hitori hitori kinmukan, shokugyokan o sodateru tame ni [Report of the Cooperative Council on the Comprehensive Research Survey concerning the Promotion of Career Studies ~ Cultivating a Sense of the Value of Work for Every Student] (28 January 2004).
*5
I call this the "Three Tiered Approach to the Entrepreneurial Spirit". For details refer to my work 21 seiki o hiraku tankyushin hoteki shiko [Inquiring Legal Thought - Opening up the 21st Century], Tokyo Legal Mind: 1996, pp. 381ff. The first rules are legal rules (the legal sphere; laws and regulations on autonomy and enforcement), the second rules are accounting rules (the accounting sphere; management and asset accounting), and the third rules are on character (the character sphere; workplace ethics and the character sphere.
*6
Naohiro Yashiro, Nihonteki koyo kanko no keizaigaku: rodoshijo no ryudoka to Nihon keizai [The Economics of Japanese Employment Practices: Japanese Economics and the Mobility of the Labor Market] (Nihon Keizai Shinbunsha: 1997), Naohiro Yashiro (ed.), Shijo jushi no kyoiku kaikaku [Market-Focussed Educational Reform] (Nihon Keizai Shinbunsha: 1999), Gary S. Becker (transl. Yoko Sano), Jinteki shihon: kyoiku o chushin to shita rironteki, keizaiteki bunsetsu [Human Capital: A Theoretical Economic Analysis Centered on Education] (Toyo Keizai Shinposha: 1976), Takashi Koshio, Kyoiku no keizai bunsetsu [An Economic Analysis of Education] (Nihonhyoronsha: 2002), Kazuhiro Arai, Kyoiku no keizaigaku - nyumon: kokyoshin no kyoiku wa naze hitsuyo ka [The Economics of Education - An Introduction to the Need for Public Spirited Education] (Keiso Shobo: 2002), J. E. Stiglitz (transl. Shiro Yabushita), J.E. Sutiguritsu kokyo keizaigaku [J.E. Stiglitz's Public Economics] (Toyo Keizai Shinposha: 1996), Hiroshi Osada, Shijo keizai no kiso bunsetsu: shijo bannoron hihan josetsu [ A Basic Analysis of the Market Economy: A Preliminary Critique of the Omnipotent Market Theory] (Hakuto Shobo: 1996), Hirofumi Uzawa, Nihon no kyoiku o kangaeru [Pondering Japanese Education] (Iwanami Shinsho: 1998) and other sources. The human capital theory "takes human beings to be, just like a factory or plant and machinery, capital stock that produces goods and services and education to be an investment into that human capital stock." (from p. 7 Koshio above). The signaling theory holds that education is no more than a signaling or notification of one person's individual abilities to another person and that people demand education in order to acquire these signals (from p. 42 Koshio above).
*7
Educational Management Society of Japan, Daigaku, koto kyoiku no keiei senryaku [Management Strategies for University and Tertiary Education] Tamagawa University Press: 2000), Ikujiro Nonaka and Noboru Konno, Chiteki keiei: dainamikku na kyosoryoku o tsukuru [Knowledge Management: Creating Dynamic Competitiveness] (Nihon Keizai Shinbunsha: 1995), Ikujiro Nonaka and Noboru Konno, Chishiki kozo no hohoron: Narejji wa-ka- no sakuho [A Methodology for Knowledge Creation: A Model for Knowledge Workers] (Toyokeizai Shinposha: 2003), Michael E. Porter and Hirotaka Takeuchi, Nihon no kyoso senryaku [Japan's Competition Strategy] (Diamond: 2000), Dai Seno, Satoshi Akutsu and Ikujiro Nonaka, Chishiki keiei jissenron [Theory for Implementation of Knowledge Management] (Hakuto Shobo: 2001), Takahiro Fujimoto, Seisan manejimento nyumon [Introduction to Production Management] (Nihonkeizai Shinbunsha: 2001), Takahiro Fujimoto, Noryoku kochiku kyoso: Nihon no jidosha sangyo wa naze tsuyoi no ka [Competition in Skill Creation: Why Japan's Car Industry Excels] (Chuo Koron Shinsho: 2003) and other sources.
*8
Masuo Koyasu and ors, Kyoiku shinrigaku [Educational Psychology] (Yuhikaku: 2003), Tomokazu Haebara, Shinichi Ichikawa and Haruhiko Shimoyama (eds.), Shinrigaku kenkyuho [Psychological Methodology] (Hoso Daigaku Kyoiku Shinkokai: 2003). Masaya Iwanaga and Kyoko Inagaki (eds.), Kyoiku shakaigaku [Educational Sociology] (Hoso Daigaku Kyoiku Shinkokai: 2003). Tadashi Oyama and Yasuko Uemura (eds.) Shinrigakushi [A History of Psychology] (Hoso Daigaku Kyoiku Shinkokai: 1998).
*9
Naohiro Yashiro, Kekkon no keizaigaku: kekkon to wa jinsei ni okeru saidai no toshi [The Economics of Marriage: Marriage as the Greatest Investment of a Lifetime] (Futami Shobo: 1993), Nihon Keizai Kenkyu Sentaa (eds.) Nihon keizai kenkyu no. 22 'Kazoku no keizaigaku' [Japanese Economy Research Paper No.22 'The Economics of the Family'] (Nihon Keizai Kenkyu Sentaa: 1992), Kazuo Nishimura, Kyoiku ga abunai 1.2.3 [Education in Danger: 1,2, 3.] (Nihon Keizai Shinbunsha: 2001), Takehiko Kariya, Kaisoka Nihon to kyoiku kiki: fuheitosaiseisan kara iyoku kakusa shakai (insentibu dibaido) e [Class structures in Japan and the Education Crisis: From Reproducing Inequality to the Incentive Divide] (Yushindo Kobunsha: 2001), Toru Umihara, Nihonshi shohyakka gakko [The Small Encyclopedia of Japanese History: Education] (Kondo Shuppansha: 1996), Akio Miyadera, Riberarizumu no kyoiku tetsugaku: tayosei to sentaku [Liberalism and the Philosophy of Education: Diversity and Choice] (Keiso Shobo: 2000) and other sources
*10
Hiroshi Sanuki, Igirisu no kyoiku kaikaku to Nihon [Japan and the Educational Reforms in the UK] (Kobunken: 2002), Naohiro Yashiro (ed.) Shakaiteki kisei no keizaibunsetsu [Economic Analysis of Society Regulations] (Nihon Keizai Shinbunsha: 2000), Masahiko Aoki and ors (eds.) Daigaku kaikaku: kadai to ronten [University Reforms: Issues and Debates] (Toyo Keizai Shinposha: 2001), Zenkoku Shikeiretsu, Keieigaku, Shogaku, Kaikeigaku, Keieijohokagaku [Management Studies, Commerical Studies, Accounting, Management Information Science], Council on Education (eds.) Gaikokujin kyoju ga mita Nippon no daigaku kyoiku: kore de ii no ka keieigaku no oshiekata - manabikata [Japan's University Education as Seen by Foreign Lecturers: Is Our Learning and Teaching of Management Good Enough?] (Chuo Keizaisha: 2003) and other sources.
*11
Minoru Ishizuki, Hikaku - kokusai kyoikugaku [Comparative Studies in International Education] (Toshindo: 1996) , Clark Carr (transl. Yoshiaki Obara and ors), Amerika koto kyoiku no daihenbo: 1960-1980 [The Transfiguration of American Tertiary Education 1960-1980] (Tamagawa University Press: 1996), Burton Clark (ed.) (transl. supervised by Morikazu Ushiogi), Daigakuin kyoiku no kenkyu [Research into Graduate School Education] (Toshindo: 1999), Yokuo Murata, Tonan Ajia shokoku no kokumin togo to kyoiku: taminzokushakai no okeru katto [South East Asian National Unification and Education: Conflict in Multicultural Societies] (Toshindo: 2001), Takekazu Ebara, Gendai Amerika no daigaku: posuto taishuka o mezashite [Contemporary American Universities: Toward Post-Popularization] (Tamagawa University Press: 1994), Surveys, Statistics and Planning Section, Education Minister's Secretariat, Shogaikoku no kyoiku no ugoki [Movements in Education in Overseas Countries] (Ministry of Finance Press: 2000), Surveys, Statistics and Planning Section, Education Minister's Secretariat, Shogaikoku no kyoiku gyosaisei seido [Finance and Administration Systems for Education in Overseas Countries] (Ministry of Finance Press: 2000), Ministry of Education (MEXT), Wagakuni no bunkyo shisaku [Japan's Education Policies] (Ministry of Finance Press), MEXT, Kyoiku shihyo no kokusai hikaku [A Comparison of International Educational Indices] (Department of Treasury Press) and other sources.

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